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A STUDY ON THE ECOFRIENDLY DYES EXTRACTED FROM THREE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF Curcuma L.

 

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About Authors:
*Nikhala Shree
Department of plant biology and plant biotechnology Women’s christian college
An Autonomous Institution – Affiliated To The University Of Madras
Chennai-600 006
*nikhala.shree@gmail.com

1. Introduction:
Natural dyes are known for their use in colouring of food substrate, leather, wood as well as natural fibers like wool, silk, cotton and flax as major areas of application since ancient times. Natural dyes may have a wide range of shades, and can be obtained from various parts of plants including roots, bark, leaves, flowers, and fruit (Allen 1971).  Since the advent of widely available and cheaper synthetic dyes in 1856 having moderate to excellent colour fastness properties, the use of natural dyes having poor to moderate wash and light fastness has declined to a great extent.

However, recently there has been revival of the growing interest on the application of natural dyes on natural fibers due to worldwide environmental consciousness (Agarwal 2009). Although this ancient art of dyeing with natural dyeing with natural dyes withstood the ravages of time, a rapid decline in natural dyeing continued due to the wide available of synthetic dyes at an economical price. However, even after a century, the use of natural dyes never erodes completely and they are still being used. Thus, natural dyeing of different textiles and leathers has been continued mainly in the decentralized sector for specialty products along with the use of synthetic dyes in the large scale sector for general textiles owing to the specific advantages and limitations of both natural dyes and synthetic dyes.

REFERENCE ID: PHARMATUTOR-ART-1645

In many of the world’s developing countries , natural dyes can offer not only rich and varied source of dye stuff, , but also the possibility of an income through sustainable harvest and sale of these plants (Jothi, 2008). The natural dyes present in plants and animals are pigmentry molecules, which impart colour to the materials. These molecules containing aromatic ring structure coupled with a side chain are usually required for resonance and thus to impart colour. There is a correlation of chemical structure with colour, chromogen-chromophore with auxochrome (Purrohit, 2011).

Recently, a number of commercial dyers and small textile export houses have started looking at the possibilities of using natural dyes for regular basis dyeing and printing of textiles to overcome environmental pollution caused by the synthetic dyes (Glover 1993).  Natural dyes produce very uncommon, soothing and soft shades as compared to synthetic dyes. On the other hand, synthetic dyes are widely available at an economical price and produce a wide variety of colours; these dyes however produce skin allergy, toxic wastes and other harmfulness to human body.


There are a small number of companies that are known to produce natural dyes commercially. For example, de la Robbia, which began in 1992 in Milan, produces water extracts of natural dyes such as weld, chlorophyll, logwood, and cochineal under the Eco-Tex certifying system, and supplies the textile industry. In USA, Allegro Natural Dyes produces natural dyes under the Ecolour label for textile industry (Hwang 2008). Aware of the Toxic Substance Act and the Environmental Protection Agency, they claim to have developed a mordant using a non-toxic aluminium formulation and biodegradable auxiliary substance. In Germany, Livos Pflanzenchemie Forschungs and Entwicklungs GmbH marked numerous natural products. In France, Bleu de Pastel sold an extract of woad leaves. Rubia Pigmenta Naturalia is The Netherlands company, which manufactures and sells vegetable dyes. There are several small textile companies using natural dyes. India is still a major producer of most natural dyed textiles (Vankar 2007).


For successful commercial use of natural dyes, the appropriate and standardized dyeing techniques need to be adopted without scarifying required quality of dyed textiles materials. Therefore, to obtain newer shades with acceptable colour fastness behaviour and reproducible colour yield, appropriate scientific techniques or producers need to be derived from scientific studies on dyeing methods, dyeing process variable, dyeing kinetics and compatibility of selective natural dyes. A need has also been felt to reinvestigate and rebuild the traditional processes of natural dyeing to control each treatment and pre-dyeing process (preparation, mordanting) and dyeing process variables for producing uncommon shades with balanced colour fastness and eco-performing textiles.

Production of synthetic dyes is dependent on petrochemical source, and some of synthetic dyes contain toxic or carcinogenic amines which are not eco-friendly (Hunger, 2003). Moreover, the global consumption of textiles is estimated at around 30 million tonnes, which is expected to grow at the rate of 3% per annum. The colouration of this huge quantity of textiles needs around 700,000 tonnes of dyes which causes release of a vast amount of unused and unfixed synthetic colourants into the environment (Agarwal 2009).

A renewed international interest has arisen in natural dyes due to increased awareness of the environmental and health hazards associated with the synthesis, processing and use of synthetic dyes. Natural dyes comprise colourants that are obtained from animal or vegetable matter without any chemical processing. During the last decade the use of natural dyes, obtained from animal or vegetable matter without any chemical processing, has gained momentum due to increased demand for these dyes by the food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic as well as the textile colouration industry.


The effluent generated by this much water would pollute the environment as it contains a heavy load of chemicals including dyes used during textile processing (Ali et. al., 2007). Over 7 x 105 tonnes and approximately 10,000 different types of dyes and pigments are produced world-wide annually. It is estimated that 10-15% of the dye is lost in the effluent during the dyeing process (Iqbal and Ashiq, 2007). Thus, there are two main ways to limit the environmental impact of textile processing. One is to construct sufficiently large and highly effective effluent treatment plants, and the other way is to make use of dyes and chemicals that are environment friendly.

However, in spite of the merits of natural dyes as compared to the synthetic ones, the use of the former is still not widespread due to non-availability of standard shade cards and standard application procedures. Most of the natural dyes have no substantivity for the fibre and are required to be used in conjunction with mordants. A mordant, usually a metallic salt, is regarded as a chemical, which itself be fixed on the fibre and which also combines with dyestuff. A link is formed between the fibre and the dye, which allows certain dyes with no or little affinity for fibre to be fixed (Gulrajni, 1992).

Primitive dyeing techniques included sticking plants to fabric or rubbing crushed pigments into cloth. The methods became more sophisticated with time and techniques using natural dyes from crushed fruits, berries and other plants, which were boiled into the fabric and which gave light and water fastness (resistance), were developed. Some of the well-known ancient dyes include madder, a red dye made from the roots of the Rubia tinctorum L., blue indigo from the leaves of Indigofera tinctoria L., yellow from the stigmas of the saffron plant (Crocus sativus L.) and from the rhizome of turmeric (Curcuma longa Koenig non L.; C. aromatica Salisb.;C. zeodaria Roxb.).

Today, dyeing is a complex and specialized science. Nearly all dyestuffs are now produced from synthetic compounds. This means that costs have been greatly reduced and certain application and wear characteristics have been greatly enhanced. However, practitioners of the craft of natural dying (i.e. using naturally occurring sources of dye) maintain that natural dyes have a far superior aesthetic quality, which is much more pleasing to the eye. On the other hand, many commercial practitioners feel that natural dyes are non-viable on grounds of both quality and economics. In the West, natural dyeing is now practised only as a handicraft, while synthetic dyes are being used in all commercial applications. Some craft spinners, weavers and knitters use dyes as a particular feature of their work.

Advantages & limitations of natural dyes
Natural dyes are less toxic, less polluting, less health hazardous, non- carcinogenic & non- poisonous. Added to this, they are harmonizing colours, gentle, soft and subtle and create a restful effect. Above all they are eco-friendly and can be recycled after use. However, studies have shown that certain natural dyes may have detectable mutagenic effects e.g., elderberry colour and safflower yellow; others, like carmine, can cause asthma by continuous inhalation, but it can be said that most of the natural dyes are safe and some even have curative effect e.g., curcumin in turmeric has antibacterial properties (Han and Yang, 2005; Hill, 1997).

Although natural dyes have several advantages, there are some limitations as well. Tedious extraction of the colouring compound from the raw material, low colour value and longer time make the cost of dyeing with natural dyes considerably higher than with synthetic dyes. Some of the natural dyes are fugitive and need a mordant to enhance their fastness properties. Some of the metallic mordants are hazardous. Also there are problems like difficulty in the collection of plants, lack of standardization, lack of availability of precise technical knowledge of extracting and dyeing technique and species availability.  (Teli et. al., 2000; Bhuyan et. al., 2004)

In India, the extraction of dyes from natural source and their use for dyeing have been known from time immemorial. The process of extraction and methods of applications have been localized in the areas of abundance of the dye bearing plants. There is hardly any commercial adaptable process available for manufacturing natural dyes.

2.    AIMS & OBJECTIVES
Turmeric (Curcuma longa) is a plant native to south India and Indonesia. It is also cultivated in China and the whole of South East Asia. It is also called “Haldi”. Its tuberous rhizomes have been used as a condiment, a colourant and an aromatic stimulant since antiquity. Turmeric consists of various molecular constituents, including three gold colour alkaloidal curcuminoid, curcumidesmethoxy curcumin and bisdemethoxy curcumin. The curcuminoid content responsible for colour, depends upon the turmeric variety and within a variety on the maturity at harvest. It may be present to the extent of 4 to 8 % in turmeric harvesting at the right maturity being an important factor for colour and aroma. Some isomeric forms of curcumin are displayed below:

Curcumin has anti-inflammatory, antifungal and anti-tumorous. It is also widly used as food colourant. It is called C.I Natural Yellow 3, WHO (World Health Organization) and FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization) committees have approved it as food additive, its colour index number is C.I, 75300, E100 (Han and Yang, 2005).

  • To standardize a process for the extraction of natural dye.
  • To isolate the colouring components from the rhizomes of three different species of Curcuma namely C. aromatica, C. longa & C. zeodaria.
  • To study the physical properties of the dye
  • To study the dyeing characteristics of the coloured components in bleached cotton fabric with the use of different mordants.
  • Analysis of the colour fastness (light, temperature and washing) rate in the related dye.

3. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Synthetic dyes have been in use globally in textile industries due to their availability. For the last one decade or more research has been carried out to explore the hidden component found in plants which could be used as dye alternative to synthetic one. Extensive literatures have been reviewed on this subject and some of them are given below:

Crews(1982) constructed the fading rate curves of selected natural dyes from color difference measurements by using a tristimulus colorimeter. Examination of the curves showed that most natural dyes fade rapidly initially followed by a slower rate of fading. Only the most lightfast natural dyes fade at a constant rate over time. The implications of these findings for museum textiles are discussed.

Crews(1987) evaluated two ultraviolet filters of polyester film, one colorless and one with a strong yellow color for their effectiveness in reducing fading of wool dyed with selected natural dyes and one synthetic dye. Results showed that clear filters offer no protection against fading for some natural dyes. Therefore, clear filters should not be regarded as a slightly less effective alternative to yellow filters for the protection from fading of museum artifacts colored with natural dyes because, in some instances, they are totally ineffective. When the use of yellow filters is unacceptable because of their distortion of color in exhibition areas, controlling level of illuminance to 50 lux is more beneficial than the use of clear filters in protecting some natural dyes from fading. 

Kharbade andAgrawal (1988) identified the natural dyes in historic textiles from the mid nineteenth century using thin layer chromatography (TLC) and microchemical tests. Yellow, brown and red dyes were analyzed by TLC and blue by microchemical tests. Seventy samples which were taken from museum textiles were compared with reference materials prepared in the Laboratory as well as with chemically pure major dye components of natural dyes. One yellow, two brown, one blue and two red natural dyes were identified in different primary and secondary coloured samples. It is also seen from the results that mixtures of two dyes have been used to obtain desired shades.

Wouters and Verhecken(1991) separated four major components of blue and purple natural dyes of indigoid class and also spectrally charcterised by high-performance liquid chromatography: indigotin, indirubin, 6-monobromoindigotin and 6,6’-dibromoindigotin. It has been shown for the first time that a dyeing with a hypobranchial glandular secretion of Murex trunculus contains indigotin and both its mono and di-substituted brominated derivative. The analytical features presented may be used to study the composition of old dyes on yarns.

Frigerio(1992) compared characteristics of natural dyes with synthetic dyes to minimize environmental pollution. Logwoad, tropical legume dyes, yellow woad of Cuba, dyes extracted from insects, indigo, mollusks extraction and extraction from Sandalwood, saffron, curcuma, nuts, henna and lichens are described.

Koren(1994) applied linear gradient elution methods to the HPLC analysis of plant and scale insects red for anthraquinonoid mordant dyes and molluscan blue and red purple indigoid vat dyes. The method enables the use of same elution program for the detection of different chemical classes of dyes. In addition, it significantly shortens the retention times of natural anthraquinoniod dyes over those previously published. For the first time a new dye, probably dibromoindirubin has been detected in Murex trunculus sea snail. The dye families investigated include the ones most often found on ancient textiles and shards.

Kusaka et al.(1994) prepared quinone polymethine dye I (a red dye) by culturing safflower flower buds. The dye I has λ max 554 nm. The dye is highly stable and has a characteristic color hue, and is insoluble in water but soluble in Me2CO. The dye is expected to be useful in various fields of coating materials, textile dyeing, cosmetics, and food additives.

Tsatsaroni and Eleftheriadis (1994) dyed cotton and wool fabrics with the aqueous extract of saffron containing α-crocin as the main colorant species. The dyeings were carried out with and without metal salts as mordants. The wash and light fastness of the dyed fabrics were studied. The colour of the fabrics was investigated in terms of CIE L* C* H* values.

Teli et al. (1994) successfully applied the natural dye extracted from turmeric on the cotton material. They described that if fabric is treated with tannic acid and/or metal salts and then dyed, the dyeings show improvement in depth and performance properties such as fastness to light, washing, rubbing (dry as well as wet) etc. They used CuSO4 and FeSO4 and got variation in tones, improvement in light fastness and properties otherwise inferior. The influence of concentrations of tannic acid and metal salts on cotton dyeing was also studied.

Gallotti(1995) discussed the feasibility of using plant-based dyes for textile application with reference to the use of set-aside land for non-food crops. Then the processes used to extract dyestuffs from the plant materials are described: traditional methods; ultra-filtration and inverse osmosis; extraction with fluids in a supercritical state. Finally, the analysis of natural dyes is discussed with reference to analysing the dye and its precursor, checking the purity of the extract and identifying the dyestuffs on textile materials.

Rao et al.(1995) worked to replace chrome mordanting in anticipation of a total ban on chromium in industrial effluents and a viable alternative method of mordanting. In the decentralized sector of the Indian textile industry, covering the area of carpets and other floor coverings, natural dyeing has scope for exploitation as there is a growing interest in the renewal of the art of extraction and application of natural colourants on textiles in view of worldwide awareness on the potential of possible toxicity and carcinogenic effects associated with some of the present day synthetic dyes and their intermediates.   

Tsatsaroni andKyriakides (1995) studied the dyeing of cotton and wool fabrics with the natural dyes, chlorophyll and carmine after treatment with the enzymes cellulase, a-amylase and trypsin. Wash and light fastnesses of the dyed samples were studied. Enzymatic pretreatment resulted in an increase in pigment uptake in all cases compared with the corresponding untreated samples, and did not affect fastness properties. Pretreatment with metallic salts and dyeing of pretreated samples was also carried out and the fastness properties of the dyed materials were studied. The effect of conventional mordanting with metallic salts was compared with that of enzymatic treatment on the dyeing properties of the dyes used.   

Deoand Desai (1999) dyed cotton and jute fabrics with an aqueous extract of tea, containing tannins as the main colorant species. The dyeing was carried out with and without metal salts as mordants, using three different dyeing methods: pre-mordanting, meta-mordanting and post mordanting. The resulting wash and light fastnesses of the dyed fabrics were good to excellent. The colour of the fabrics was investigated on computer colour matching system in terms of K/S, and CIELAB colour-difference values. Deep shades (K/S = 3.9) were obtained for jute in acidic media, while cotton fabrics could be dyed in medium depths (K/S = 2.0) under identical conditions of dyeing.

Zhou(1999) described the preparation process comprised of soaking 100 parts of madder or sappan wood dust with water for 3-5 hours, adding 5-7 parts of 3% wood alcohol, filtering, removing the supernatant from the filtrate, heating to 18-22ºC, sealing, fermenting for 65-79 hours, concentrating into 50-75% bright red pigment liquid for dyeing fibers. The fibre dyeing process comprised of mixing the pigment liquid 1, water 25-30 and 5% tannic acid 0.03-0.05 parts, dipping 5 parts of animal fiber or 6 parts of natural silk in the solution, boiling for 20-30 minutes, holding at 70-90ºC for 60-75 minutes and drying. The bright red pigment liquid can be used together with other plant pigments.

Zhou(1999) produced a pure yellow natural dye for dyeing animal fiber or natural silk for producing carpets in a process comprises mixing crushed Gardenia fruit 100, 3% acetic acid 3-5 and water 2000-2200 parts, heating to 50ºC, holding for 100-140 minutes, filtering, removing the supernatant of the filtrate and concentrating into 50-75% pure yellow pigment liquid. The fiber dyeing process comprises mixing the pigment liquid 1, 3% KAl(SO4)2 solution 0.03-0.04 and water (30ºC) 30-35 parts, dipping 7 parts of animal fiber or 9 parts of natural silk in the solution, holding for 60-80 minutes, boiling for 30-40 minutes, cooling to 90ºC, washing with cold water, and drying. The pigment liquid may also be used to prepare fiber-dyeing liquors by mixing with other plant pigments.

Ansariand Thakur (2000) extracted the natural dye from pomegranate and optimised the conditions of extraction. Optimization of conditions for extraction of C.I. Natural Yellow 7 dye from pomegranate rind has been carried out by studying the effect of pH of extraction media, time and temperature of soaking/extraction and mass to liquor ratio on quality and yield of the dye. The extracted dye has been characterized by its physico-chemical properties, viz. solubility, micro chemical analysis, thin layer chromatography and UV/Visible spectrophotometry. Dyeing experiments and analysis of red listed chemicals have also been carried out to see the efficiency and eco-friendliness of the dye and to explore the possibility of its commercial use as a substitute for synthetic dyes based on forbidden aryl amines. 

Bhattacharya(2000) dyed wool fabric with Catechu by two different process sequences using various metal sulphates as mordant. The dyeing behaviour has been assessed by measuring K/S values and different fastness properties. The effect of different metal ions has been studied with respect to their influence on colour and fastness properties. The mechanism of mordant interaction with the fibre has been briefly considered.

Shirata et al.(2000) isolated Janthinobacterium lividum from wet silk thread whose color became bluish-purple7, 8). This bacterium produced large amounts of bluish-purple pigment on some media containing amino acids, such as Wakimoto medium. The pigment was extracted with methanol and was identified as a mixture of violacein and deoxyviolacein. This pigment could be used to dye not only natural fibers like silk, cotton and wool, but also synthetic fibers like nylon and vinylon, and generally gave a good color tone. The shade depended on the material. Silk, cotton and wool showed a bluish-purple color, nylon a dark blue color, and acetate a purple color. Dyeing could be performed by a simple procedure consisting of either dipping in the pigment extract or boiling with the bacterial cells. By changing the dipping time and the temperature of the dye bath, shades ranging from light purple to deep bluish-purple could be selected. The color fastness of the dyed material was about the same as that of materials dyed with vegetable dyes, but the color faded easily when the material was exposed to sunlight. However, since the pigment can be mass-produced by culturing, if these shortcomings could be overcome, the dye may become promising. The pigment displayed an antimicrobial activity against phytopathogenic fungi like Rosellinia necatrix which causes white root rot of mulberry7). It could also be used as a bio-fungicide.

Gulrajani (2001) evaluated the cotton dyeing by using various natural dyes alone and in combination to yield six basic shades: blue, yellow, red, black, green and fawn. These dyed fibres were then blended in various proportions along with undyed cotton fibres and spun on a rotor-spinning machine to produce 204 coloured yarns. The fastness properties of the six basic shades were determined. The L*a*b* and L*C*h values of the yarns having 50% dyed fibre and 50% undyedcotton fibre was also determined. The values were plotted to obtain the colour gamut of natural dyes on cotton yarns. 

Gulrajani(2001) presented status of natural dyes with reference to the stake holders of natural dyes. He estimated the dye requirements, availability of natural dyes, technology for production and some important natural dyes and mordants are critically discussed. Application techniques and fastness properties of natural dyes are also briefly discussed. It was suggested that natural dyes are not substitutes for synthetic dyes. Some of the limitation of natural dyes such as use of banned metal salts as mordants, poor fastness properties and use of agricultural land for growing natural plants could overcome through research and development.

Gupta(2001) described that Purpurin (1,2,4-trihydroxyanthraquinone) is the major colorant present in the roots of Indian madder (Rubia cordifolia). Its structure is similar to that of disperse dyes. To gain an understanding of the dye-fibre interactions involved, kinetic and thermodynamic studies have been conducted with purpurin on nylon fibre. Dyeing corresponds to the Nernst isotherm as linear isotherms were obtained. The dye is found to be sensitive to pH and high temperature. The rate of dye uptake, diffusion coefficient, standard affinity, heat of dyeing and entropy have been calculated and discussed. 

Bohmer(2002) described indigo blue which has been used for 4000 years, the blue of all old textiles. The history and chemistry of natural indigo and blue dyestuffs are traced. Historical examples of indigo blue obtained through archaeology are described. Indian production is noted in the 19th Century and discovery of the chemical composition of indigo. Now declined to supplying a niche hobby market, the niche is expanding again. Other ingredients are listed and the process methods explained. Indigo plants, their cultivation and the process of extraction are detailed. Dyeing with woad is covered, together with the use of other plants. Industrial-scale production of synthetic indigo began in 1897, based on Heumann's method of synthesis, and the growth of this industry discussed. Comparisons are made between natural/synthetic indigo. Its use in old oriental carpets is reviewed, and another natural blue dyestuff, haematoxylon from logwood, briefly noted.

Plate 1: Natural dye producing plants

(1. Benthamidia capitata, 2. Curcuma domestica, 3. Indiogofera atropurpurea, 4.Rheum moorcroftianum 5. Toona serrata, 6.Rhododendron lepitodum, 7.Arnebia bentamii, 8. Phylogacanthus thyrsiformis, 9. Aesculus indica, 10. Butea monosperma, 11. Nardostachys grandiflora, 12. Cupressus torulosa, 13.Hedychium spicatum)

Choo and Lee (2002) extracted and analyzed natural dyes by using traditional Korean methods of dyeing cloths. Nine plants were used, either singly or in combination, to produce a wide range of colours. Some of the fabrics were then analysed for chemical identification of their dye components and mordants. The results of microchemical tests, visible spectroscopy, thin layer chromatography and high performance liquid chromatography are compiled as reference data for later comparison with the test results of antique samples that are increasingly becoming available from a number of excavations. This body of reference data will permit a more scientific understanding of traditional dyeing crafts, essential for authentic restoration and proper conservation.

Devi et al. (2002) determined Eclipta prostrata, a common weed found in most of the fields in Andhra Pradesh is a good source of natural dye for silk for production of green shades. Alkaline medium was suitable for extraction of dye from the plant and pleasant yellowish green shades were obtained on silk. The extraction and dyeing procedures were standardized based on the optical density before and after dyeing silk and visual appearance judged by a panel of 30 scientists. All four mordants namely alum, chrome, copper sulphate and ferrous sulphate were found to be suitable for application on silk. Fifteen and 20% of alum, 3% of chrome, 2% of copper sulphate and 1 and 2% of ferrous sulphate were found to produce fast yellowish green shades on silk. Mostly dark shades were obtained by post mordanting method, followed by simultaneous and premordanting methods. Exposure to alkali had either deepened the hue or added green tinge to the silk samples when subjected to washing and alkali perspiration. Loss of colour was found with acidic perspiration. Excellent to outstanding fastness to sunlight was found in all mordanted samples. There was no absolute staining for washing. Colour change was not found in samples subjected to crocking in dry and wet conditions. Only slight staining was found. This dye can easily be recommended for use on silk fabrics for producing light green shades.

Dweck(2002) examined some of the existing methods for colouring the hair and skin using natural material (such as henna) and proposes a parallel technology that exists in the dyeing of wool and fabrics to extend the colour range. Many of the listed plants and their derivatives are not found in Annex IV of the Cosmetic Directive and may not be used as colours; however, they do have other properties which may justify their inclusion into a product, for example, as astringent or anti-inflammatory agents. The paper concludes with some reported antigreying and hair styling preparations cited in the literature.

Suneta& Mahale (2002) described that a dye material extracted from Parthenium leaves has range of bright, soft even and lustrous colors on silk yarn. This dye can be effectively used at commercial level without any allergic effect.

Tawfik (2002) explained the suitability of turmeric in the fine powder form as natural dye in printing cotton, polyester and their blended fabrics using pigment-printing technique. Variable studied included concentration of the colour, nature of thickening agent, type of fixation and pH of the printing paste. The printed goods were evaluated by measuring the K/S and the overall fastness properties. The data obtained indicated that regardless of the nature of the fabrics used, type of fixation or of the time elapsed before commencing printing, the K/S increased by increasing the concentration of turmeric and/or decreasing the pH to 6.3. Thermofixation is more suitable than steaming. It can be concluded that turmeric can be used as natural dye successfully.

Teli et al.(2002) used water borne extracts of madder and tea to dye cotton fabric using conventional single dip dyeing methods with different mordanting methods. The results were compared with a new method that uses ferrous sulphate and tannic acid as mordants in a multiple dip process. Methods, procedures and results are fully documented with the aid of figures and tables. Fastness properties of the finished dyed samples are also measured and documented. Results show that the multiple dip method is capable of producing deeper shades, uses less dye and indicates a potential for industrial use. Ferrous sulphate mordant produced the deepest shades.

Bochnaan and Weiser (2003) studied results of dyeing linen and wool with five plant extracted dyes ( weld, madden, Chinese, indigo, dyer’s chamomile, Canadian golden rod  and evaluated by using different mordants and evaluated fabrics color fastness and resistance to light, rubbing and washing fastness.

Bains et al. (2003) optimized dyeing conditions for the use of mango bark in dyeing cotton, and evaluated colourfastness of the samples. The preparation of the dry mango bark (Mangifera indica) and cotton samples were specified, and the mordants listed. The optimum concentration of myrobalan was noted with the optimum extraction time of dye material and optimum medium. This was followed by the optimum concentration of dye material and dyeing time of dye material. The selection of mordant concentration was then discussed, with the method of mordanting used. The colourfastness evaluation of the dyed samples covered washing, rubbing, light and perspiration fastness. The results from each of these processes were reported and it was concluded that the use of mango dye on cotton could successfully produce a wide range of pastel, soft and bright colours. Particular reactions in the colourfastness tests were listed.

Mathur and Gupta(2003) obtained natural dyes from concentrating the aqueous solution extract of banana flower petaloide under reduced pressure & evaporating it to dryness. Bharat merino sheep wool yarn dyed with turmeric (Curcuma longa) was subjected to mordanting separating with natural mordant and chromium under the identical condition. Out of the different concentration of the mordants used 3.5% natural mordant and 1.55 % chromium on the weight of yarn show similar color fastness, reflectance, color shape and K/S values.  The chemistry of wool dyeing and the physio-chemical properties of dyed wool yarns are also discussed.

Mathur et al.(2003) described the extraction of natural colourant from neem (Azadirachta indica) for dyeing of wool yarn. Neem bark colourant showed two absorption maxima at 275 and 374 nm. Dyeing of wool yarn under the optimum conditions (pH, 4.5; colourant conc., 0.05g per gram of wool; treatment time, 60 min; and treatment temp., 97.5°C) showed very good light and wash fastness properties without deteriorating the quality of wool. The chemistry of wool dyeing process had also been discussed.

Paul et al. (2003) used the roots of Berberis vulgaris, a common shrub in India to prepare a dye in order to optimise various variables for its use as dye. Four synthetic mordants were used for the study: alum, chrome, copper sulphate and ferrous sulphate. The medium of dye extraction, extraction time, and dye concentration were investigated, the woollen yarns were dyed according to the results, and colourfastness was then tested. Four tables present data on the colourfastness results. Overall, Berberis was found to be a good source for producing a number of fast shades ranging from yellow to black on woollen yarns by using different mordants.

Phukon andPhukon (2003) used the bark of the Tapar tree for dyeing mulberry silk yarn. Both alkaline and acidic methods of dye extraction were used, together with pre-mordanting, simultaneous mordanting and post-mordanting with alum, chrome, copper sulphate and ferrous sulphate. Fastness was also assessed. The results show that alum and the pre-mordanting method gave the best result, with good colourfastness. The alkaline medium method of dye extraction gave the best dye absorption.

Samanta et al.(2003) performed work on cotton fabric dyed with four different natural dyes (turmeric, myrobolan, madder, red sandalwood) using pre, post and simultaneous-mordanting techniques for dyeing. Aluminium sulphate was used as a mordant. Some samples were also dyed with a combination of turmeric with madder or red-sandalwood and a combination of myrobolan with madder or red sandalwood in different proportions. Selected mordanted and dyed samples were after-treated with a cationic dye fixing agent. Turmeric being a direct dye type, gave maximum colour strength when applied by the simultaneous-mordanting method, either singly or in combination with other dyes. Turmeric also showed poor wash fastness, which was improved to some extent by after-treatment with a cationic dye fixing agent and on combination of turmeric with other dyes of better fastness. Combined dye application of turmeric with the other dyes by the simultaneous-mordanting method resulted in a better shade development as the observed colour strength values were always higher than the calculated or the expected values. However, myrobolan on combination with other dyes gave higher colour strength when applied by the post-mordanting method. In the case of the simultaneous-mordanting method, myrobolan did not show a synergistic effect in terms of the observed and calculated K/S values.

Zhou et al.(2003) listed typical examples of bio-dyestuffs including insect and tree secretions, and vegetable dyes. The plants providing red, yellow, blue, green and black colours are also listed and the method of extraction detailed. The problems faced by bio-dyeing are noted. Bio-materials can be used to replace harmful, energy or material-expensive chemical treatments for pretreatment and finishing. These include wool decrement by enzyme, shrink-proofing of wool by enzyme, wool and fabric washing by enzyme and other bio-reagents. Chinese textile exports are meeting more environmentally based barriers in international trade and biomaterials instead of harmful reagents would help to resolve these problems.

Agarwal andGupta (2004) discussed the conditions for dyeing of wool with a vegetable dye from the roots of the herb Madder (Rubia cordifolia). The optimized conditions included the concentration of the dye, the extraction time, the dyeing time, the concentration of the mordants, and the method of mordanting for wool fibers. The dyed samples were subjected to tests for fastness to light and washing. From optical density data, the optimum concentration of the dye was found to be 5 grams per 100 ml of water, while the optimum extraction and dyeing time were found to be 120 minutes and 90 minutes, respectively. The simultaneous method of mordanting was observed to give the best results in terms of lustre, depth of shade, evenness of the dye, and the overall appearance.

Ferreira et al.(2004) described the sources and structures of dyes used to colour Western historical textiles are described in this tutorial review. Most blue and purple colours were derived from indigo--obtained either from woad or from the indigo plant--though some other sources (e.g. shellfish and lichens) were used. Reds were often anthraquinone derivatives obtained from plants or insects. Yellows were almost always flavonoid derivatives obtained from a variety of plant species. Most other colours were produced by over-dyeing e.g. greens were obtained by over-dyeing a blue with a yellow dye. Direct analysis of dyes isolated from artefacts allows comparison with the historical record.

Gaffney(2004) discussed dyeing techniques based on using the plant dyes like madder, indigo, palamut, walnut, ezentere, sutlegen, weld, camomile, and pomegranate. Madder, a probable native to Anatolia, is obtained from the dried, ground up, and soaked roots of the cultivated dye. Palamut is obtained from the drying and ground up of the barks and acorns. The laudable Turkish efforts in reviving the usage of natural dye plants seem to suffer in monetary terms, owing to the time involved with the traditional dyeing process.

Garima et al. (2004) executed work on wool dyeing by using reinwardtia flowers and poplar leaves in the ratio of 50:50 each as natural dye. Different variables viz. wave length, dye material combination, dye extraction time, dye material concentration, dyeing time, pH and mordants were standardized. 7% dye material, extracted and dyed for 45 minutes each using 1 and 4% of copper sulphate, chrome and ferrous sulphate as mordants gave excellent colours ranging from yellow ochre to military green. The fastness grades in terms of washing as colour change were 3-4/5 and colour staining from 3-5, light fastness from 3/4 to 4/5, rubbing fastness 4-5 and perspiration from 3/4 to 4/5. Hence the source explored was found suitable for dyeing of wool.

Gupta et al.(2004) described many of the plants from which natural dyes are obtained are, for example, also known to have medicinal properties. In the current study, the antimicrobial properties of eleven natural dyes against three types of Gram-negative bacteria were studied experimentally. Seven of the dyes showed activity against one or more of the bacteria. The minimum inhibitory concentration for three selected dyes was determined. The results demonstrate that certain dyes are able to reduce microbial growth almost completely in the case of Escherichia coli and Proteus vulgaris. Selected dyes would therefore be valuable for the dyeing of sheets and gowns for hospital use, and on articles which are less suitable for laundering such as mattresses and upholstery. The dyes examined exhibited good wash fastness and the antibacterial effect is therefore likely to be durable.

Phukan andPhukan (2004) standardized the condition of dyeing mulberry silk yarn with the bark of Arjun tree, Terminalia Arjuna. Mordants such as alum, chrome, copper sulfate, and ferrous sulfate were used for the study for the fixation of the dye molecule with the fiber. To remove the sericin, degumming was done before dyeing, with washing soda, alkaline and acidic methods were employed for dye extraction. Yarns were mordanted in the first stage and and dyed in the second stage in the pre-mordanting method. In simultaneous mordanting, mordants and dyes were applied simultaneously in the same bath. In the post-mordanting method, however, the yarns were first dyed and then mordanted. The alum mordant and pre-mordanting method showed the best results in both alkaline and acidic medium for the Arjun tree dye. Yarns dyed with Arjun dyes showed color fastness to washing, rubbing, light, and perspiration.

Plate 2: Natural dye producing plants (contd)

(14. Rumex hastatus, 15. Erythrina suberosa, 16. Hippophae salicifolia, 17. Osbeckia stellata, 18. Punica granatum, 19. Mallotus philippensis, 20. Corylus jacquemontii, 21. Lannea coromandelica, 22. Rhododendron arboretum, 23. Pinus wallichiana, 24. Taxus baccata, 25.Urtica dioica,   26.Peristrophe paniculata)

Rose et al.(2004) performed efficient dyeing of cotton yarns with a plant dye, Ornamental Mustard (Brassica juncea) with certain optimum variables. Experiments were therefore conducted to standardize the medium of dye extraction, wave length, extraction time, dye material concentration, dyeing temperature, dyeing time, and dyeing pH. The ornamental mustard leaves were extracted in aqueous, alkaline, and alcoholic mediums, and the best color was obtained in the alkaline medium. The results showed that the optical density increased with increased extraction time up to 30 minutes, and further decreased with increase in extraction time. The maximum dye absorption was observed at seven per cent dye material concentration, and increased with increase in dyeing temperature. The dye absorption also increased with increasing pH, and thus the optimum pH selected for dyeing was 10.

Thus, dye extraction in an alkaline medium with optimum wave length of 360nm, extraction time 30 minutes, dye material concentration 7%, dyeing temperature 100°C, dyeing time 45 minutes, and dyeing pH 10, gave excellent results for dyeing cotton yarns.

Shukla et al.(2004) dyed wool fabric with an aqueous extract from the bark of Acacia pinnata containing tannin as the major colourant. Dyeing with the combination of extracts of Acacia pinnata and banana stem has also been carried out and improvement in depth of colour without altering the tone observed. The colour of the fabrics has been evaluated on computer colour matching system in terms of K/S and L* a* b* colour coordinates. The dyeing shows moderate to good fastness to washing, light and rubbing.

Shrishailappa (2004) reported that the water kept in Caesalpinia sappan L. heart wood used in Kerela as herbal drinking water for its medicinal value. Sappan wood was one of the most widely used plant dye for its red colour. The dye was reported to have anti-inflammatory activity.

Indrayanet al., (2004) found materials isolated from the heart wood of Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk. to be of multiple diversified use. It could be used as a direct dye for wool and silk. It shows antibacterial activity against certain gram positive and gram negative bacteria.

Clementi et al.(2005) spectrally characterized a naturally occurring dye, orcein, which was widely used in antiquity for textile dyeing, in both solution and powder. Laboratory samples of wool and silk orcein-dyed threads were analysed before and after ageing. An original fragment of Renaissance tapestry was also analysed. The textile (wool) and the colourant (orcein) were recognised by comparison with the data from the laboratory samples.

Cristea andVilarem (2005) evaluated the light fastness of selected natural dyes (madder, weld and woad) and the effect of some commonly used antioxidants and UV absorbers on the light fastness of these dyes. The photofading rate curves of madder and weld fixed on cotton correspond to type II fading rate curves described by Giles. These results are in concordance with those of Cox-Crews. The woad presents a type III fading rate curve, similar to the indigo fading rate curve presented by Cox-Crews. A poor light fastness of the three natural dyes in comparison with synthetic ones is established beyond question. Nevertheless, the use of some additives can improve this default of natural dyes. In all the cases, the use of UV absorbers or antioxidants improved the light fastness of dyed fabrics. The most effectives were the vitamin C and the gallic acid.

Han andYang (2005) used curcumin, a common natural dye for fabric and food colorations, as an antimicrobial finish due to its bactericidal properties on dyed textiles. A common dyeing process, either batch or continuous, could provide textiles with colour as well as antimicrobial properties. The relationship between the sorption of an interesting natural colorant onto wool and the antimicrobial ability of the dyed wool were investigated. Relations between the bacterial inhibition rate and curcumin concentration, and inhibition rate and K/S value were developed. Antimicrobial activity of wool fabric finished with curcumin can be predicted without antimicrobial testing based on the developed relationships. Durability of antimicrobial activity to laundering and to light is also discussed.

Kim et al.(2005) used pigment extracts from the root of Lithospermum erythrorhizon as natural red dyes, as well as basic drugs due to their numerous pharmacological activities. In recent years, the demand for such natural pigment materials has increased; however, in natural dye production, the pigment yield is strongly affected by the source of cultivation, extracting conditions, and solvents. Accordingly, this study proposes a method of enzymatic pigment production based on the introduction of hydrolytic enzymes prior to the usual extraction to avoid repeated pigment extraction. The matrix destruction in the epidermal layer of the root by the enzymes was found to improve the pigment extractability, that is, the increment of KL, the mass transfer coefficient, representing the pigment mobility in the epidermal layer. The root tissue maceration by the hydrolytic enzymes was also measured to evaluate the pigment extractability, and a linear relationship was observed between the KL values and the tissue maceration up to the addition of 3000 units/g of xylanase, indicating that the enzymatic maceration proportionally increases the interfacial area between the pigment and the solvent. Bacillus sp. DX107 xylanase only served to increase the extractability of the pigment by loosening the root shell matrix, without affecting the contents and color properties of the pigment, as almost no difference was found in the color between the pigments extracted using xylanase and those extracted according to the traditional method.

Mahajan et al.(2005) studied the silk yarn dyeing with Peach leaves by using six combinations of mordants namely Alum/ Chrome, Alum/ Copper Sulphate; Alum/ Ferrous Sulphate; Chrome/ Copper Sulphate; Chrome/ Ferrous Sulphate and Copper Sulphate/ Ferrous Sulphate in the ratio of 1:3, 1:1 and 3:1. The dyeing was carried out according to the optimized dyeing conditions, which were standardized beforehand. These optimized conditions were dye extraction time, dye concentration, dyeing medium, dyeing time etc. The dyeing was done using these optimized conditions and the above mentioned six combinations in three ratios with three mordanting methods namely pre, simultaneous and post mordanting. This resulted in a total of 54 shades. The dyed samples were then evaluated for colour fastness to washing, light, rubbing and perspiration fastness according to ISO standards. On evaluation it was concluded that silk dyed with Peach leaves showed excellent washing fastness except for few samples, very good light fastness and fair to good rubbing and perspiration fastness.

Sarkar et al. (2005) worked on three varieties of fresh Marigold flowers viz. lemon yellow, golden yellow and maroon-yellow as raw materials for natural dyeing of cotton, wool and silk textiles. Amount of flower for particular volume of water and extraction time were optimized on the basis of intensity of colour of the extract as indicated by optical density. The same were found to be 30g for the amount of flower in 100 ml water and 40 minutes for extraction time. However in the case of maroon-yellow marigold, the extraction time was 50 minutes. Cotton, wool and silk materials were dyed with the extracts from three different varieties of Marigold after mordanting with eight different mordants in each case. An ageing time of seven days was allowed between dyeing and soaping. In all the cases attractive shades could be produced by such dyeings. Colour data of different shades as produced were measured in term of L*, a*, b* values and the same have been reported in this paper. The colourfastness property to washing of most of the dyed samples was in the range of 2-3 to 3. Colourfastness to light of the dyed samples varied with the change of mordant and the substrate. Highest rating for cotton was found to be 3 and that for silk and wool was around 4.

Singh et al.(2005) explored the study to test of some natural dyes as inherent antimicrobial activity with a view to develop protective clothing from these. Four natural dyes Acacia catechu, Kerria lacca, Quercus infectoria, Rubia cordifolia andRumex maritimus were tested against common pathogens Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus vulgaris and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Quercus infectoria dye was most effective and showed maximum zone of inhibition thereby indicating best antimicrobial activity against all the microbes tested. Minimum inhibitory concentration was found to be varying from 5 to 40 µg. The textile material impregnated with these natural dyes, however, showed less antimicrobial activity, as uptake of these dyes in textile material is below MIC.

Vankar et al.(2005) studied the dyeing of cotton fabric using Eclipta as natural dye in both conventional and sonicator methods. The effects of dyeing show higher color strength values obtained by the latter. Dyeing kinetics of cotton fabrics were compared for both the methods. The time/dye uptake reveals the enhanced dye uptake showing sonicator efficiency. The results of fastness properties of the dyed fabrics were fair to good. CIELAB values have also been evaluated.

Bechtold et al. (2006) described that food and beverage industry releases considerable amounts of wastes which contain natural dyes. Such wastes could serve as a source for the extraction of natural dyes for textile-dyeing operations. The extraction of brilliant yellow and red colours from fruits and vegetables is of particular interest. Wastes, e.g.  pressed berries, pressed grapes, distillation residues from strong liquor production, and wastes and peels from vegetable processing, have been extracted with boiling water and test dyeings on wool yarn were performed. Colour strength, shade and fastness properties of the dyeings have been tested. The extracts were applied as direct dyes and in the presence of iron (II) or alum mordants. The results prove the potential of such wastes as a source for natural dyestuff extraction. To obtain textile dyeings with acceptable fastness properties, however, rigorous selection of dyes and development of suited processes is required. A considerable number of red natural dyes need further research to optimise the low level of fastness to light.

Das et al. (2006) studied the application of dye obtained from Punica granatum fruit rind on wool and silk fabric in the presence and absence of environment-friendly mordanting agents. The dyeing of silk and wool with pomegranate solution is found to be effectively accomplished at pH 4.0. Pre- and post-mordanting employing ferrous sulphate and aluminium sulphate improve the colour uptake, light fastness and colour retention repeated washing. The use of such mordants, however, does not improve wash fastness property of dyed substrates.

Kamel et al. (2006) studied the dyeing of cationised cotton fabrics with lac natural dye by using both conventional and ultrasonic techniques. The effects of dye bath pH, salt concentration, ultrasonic power, dyeing time and temperature were studied and the resulting shades obtained by dyeing with ultrasonic and conventional techniques were compared. Colour strength values obtained were found to be higher with ultrasonic than with conventional heating. The results of fastness properties of the dyed fabrics were fair to good. Dyeing kinetics of cationised cotton fibre with lac dye using conventional and ultrasonic conditions were compared. The values of dyeing rate constant, half-time of dyeing and standard affinity and ultrasonic efficiency have been calculated and discussed.

Mahale et al. (2006) selected mahogany leaves for dye extraction and optimization of dyeing conditions by using different textile materials including cotton, silk and wool. A neutral non-bitter principle, Swietenine and a bitter hygroscopic component, Sweitenoide were isolated from the seeds. Melianone was found to be present in the dried leaves of the tree. In addition to optimizing the dyeing conditions, an attempt was made to assess the colorfastness properties of the textile materials. It was observed that cotton dyed with ferrous sulphate, post-mordanted, has the highest dye absorption. Silk and wool showed the highest dye absorption for Stannous chloride under the post-mordanting method.

Mukherjee (2006) standardized the strength of dyes and dose of mordants, which are interrelated to each other, are extremely necessary for shade reproducibility as well as for the prevention of serious water pollution. Natural dyes are mostly obtained from vegetable sources which yield dyes according to their maturity, climate and soil. Hence the fact cannot be denied that a natural dye manufacturer will feel the difficulties in controlling the dye strength as well as tone apart from the brightness which is inherent to natural dyes in most of the colorants. But strength approximation after dye manufacture for each batch can be done in terms of a standard metallic mordant from which the doses of other mordanting salts can be correlated. The dyers in small and big sectors can be able to follow the routine of application in an easy method which will help minimize the water pollution to some permissible level.

Sarkar et al. (2006) applied the portion of extracted natural dye on hydrophilic substrate like bast fiber. The hydrophilic textile substrate like 100% flax were chosen and prepared for the application of dye to obtain true shades of natural dye. Four chosen flowers were Marigold, Butterfly pea, China rose and Balsam. Use of acid dye bath choice of acid showed a definite improvement in the substantivity. Result showed good substantivity on flax fiber. There was also improvement in the fastness property.

Sudhakar et al. (2006) extracted natural dye from the nuts of Areca catechu grown abundantly in India and utilized for coloration of silk fabric. Different mordants at varying concentrations were used on silk for pre-mordanting to study their effect on the colour value and fastness properties of the dyed samples. Silk fabrics were also dyed with different mordanting techniques using lowest concentration of mordants. Colour values with respect to K/S, L* a* b* and fastness properties were found to be influenced by the type of mordant and technique of mordanting with very low concentrations of the mordant.

Teli and Paul (2006) discussed the creative potential, non-pollutant nature, and soft lustrous colors of natural dyes enable them to be used in eco-friendly methods of dyeing textiles. An attempt has been made to extract a natural dye from the coffee-seed for its application in dyeing textiles like cotton and silk. Dye extract was used and filtered after boiling the coffee-seed coat in 5 liter water for 4 hours and kept overnight. The dyeings were carried out by pre-mordanting, meta-mordanting and post-mordanting, using several mordants including myrobolan and ferrous sulphate. The fastness properties of dyeing are continuously achieving the range of satisfactory level and give different tones and higher depth of dyeing. The result indicated that coffee-seed extract develops a range of shades with good fastness properties on cotton and silk.

Guinot, et al (2007) investigated aqueous extracts of plant by-products (carrot, onion, black carrot, sage, spinach and thyme) for dyeing capacity on fibres and for both colorant and antioxidant potential using colorimetric and chromatographic tools, and FTC assay, respectively. Regarding fibres, classical correlations between measured colours and phytochemical patterns of dyeing extracts were verified. Light fastness of onion, sage and thyme samples, evaluated following a normalised test, was very promising considering industrial restrictions; moreover, antioxidative activities of those aqueous plant extracts were very attractive when compared to the three others and to α-tocopherol used as standard. Our results were of great interest underlining new complementary valorisations for plant by-products, becoming in this way new and inexpensive natural resources for various industries.

Kale et al. (2007) analyzed that synthetic dyes bring better performance but it harms the environment and ecology as it creates pollution. That is why the use of natural dyes has been brought back because these do not bring harm to ecology as they are biodegradable, non-toxic and eco-friendly. Natural dyes are soft in color, cool to eyes and good to skin. Several methodologies as the preparation of yarn, selection of dye material and the medium of dye extraction is presented. The optimization of dye extraction time, dye material concentration and mordant concentration were also discussed. The right mordant selection, color fastness properties and the fastness grades are described.

Koyuncu (2007) studied the dyeing of wool yarn using Rheum ribes roots as natural dye in conventional method. The effects of dyeing show higher colour strength values obtained by the latter. Dyeing with Rheum ribes roots has been shown to give good dyeing results. The results of washing fastness properties of the dyed wool yarn were fair to good. CIELAB values have also been evaluated and discussed.

Lu et al. (2007) performed experiment of wool fabrics dyeing with sorghum red as natural dye by mordant dyeing method. The process conditions of premordant and post-mordant dyeing were determined in quadrature experiments. The experimental results were as follows: the consistency of the dye was the key factor on dyeing depth in pre-mordant process, the dyeing depth enhanced with consistency of the dye solution increasing; the pH value was the second factor that affected the depth, the depth improved with the increase of pH value. The consistency of Fe2+ played an important role in post-mordant dyeing process. The depth enhanced with the increase of consistency of Fe2+. Temperature was the less important factor in the process. The depth improved with the temperature rising. The rubbing and washing color fastness of dyed wool fabric were all 4 or up to 4. It indicated that sorghum red dye was suitable to dye wool fabric. 

Shanker and Vanker (2007) determined Hibiscus mutabilis (Gulzuba)/Cotton rose/ belongs to family Malvaceae produces natural dye which has been used for dyeing textiles. Aqueous extract of Gulzuba flowers yield shades with good fastness properties. The dye has good scope in the commercial dyeing of cotton, silk for garment industry and wool yarn for carpet industry. In the present study dyeing with gulzuba has been shown to give good dyeing results. Pretreatment with 2-4 % metal mordants and keeping M:L ratio as 1:40 for  the weight of the fabric to plant extract is optimum showing very good fastness properties for cotton, silk and wool dyed fabrics.

Tiwari and Vankar (2007) carried out standardisation and optimisation of dye extraction of Terminalia arjuna bark. The dyeability of aqueous extract was evaluated for dyeing cotton fabric. Dyed cotton fabric shows good fastness properties and evaluated as commercially viable natural dye source.

Vankar and Shanker (2007) used Bischofia javanica Bl. (Local name Maub) belongs to family Euphorbiaceae for natural dye production for textile dyeing. In the present study innovative sonicator dyeing with Bischofia has been shown to give good dyeing results. Pretreatment with 1-2% metal mordant and using 5% of plant extract (owf) is found to be optimum and shows very good fastness properties for cotton, wool and silk dyed fabrics.

Vankar et al. (2007) studied the production of anthraquinone reddish orange dyes in roots stem and leaves, which has been used for dyeing textiles since ancient times from Rubia cordifolia (Tamin, local name). Commercial sonicator dyeing with Rubia showed that pretreatment with biomordant, Eurya acuminata DC var euprista Karth. (Theaceae family) [local name, Nausankhee (Apatani tribe), Turku (Nyishi tribe) in 2%] showed very good fastness properties for dyed cotton using dry powder as 10% of the weight of the fabric is optimum. Use of biomordant replaces metal mordants making natural dyeing ecofriendly. Indigotin and indirubin was eliminated. For acidic extraction of dyes from fibres, ethanol was used. Due to its higher boiling point than methanol it evaporates slower from the extraction solution enabling a more efficient extraction of dyes.

METHODLOGY
The raw materials (C. aromatica, C. longa & C. zeodaria) for the present study were collected from herbal shops in and around Chennai.
TAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION: Curcuma L.
Stem less herb; root stock tuberous. Often with accessory stipitate tubers. Leaves usually oblong or broadly lanceolate, rarely narrow, often very large. Flowers in a dense, bracteate, strobiliform spike, terminating in a coma of larger, usually coloured, sterile bracts; the fertile bracts forming pouches enclosing 2-7 bracteate flowers that develop in succession; peduncle clothed in appressed bracts. Calyx short, cylindric, usually minutely toothed. Corolla funnel-shaped, lobes three, ovate or narrowly oblong, the upper one longer and hooded. Lateral staminodes petalloid, oblong, connate with the short, broad filament of the fertile stamen. Lip broad, entire and lobed. Anther not crested. Ovary three celled, ovules many, axile; style filiform, stigma, 2-lipped; lips ciliate, fruit a tardily dehiscent, globose. Seed ovoid or oblong, usually artillate.

Curcuma aromatica Salisb. (Zingiberaceae)
Tamil: Kasthuri manjal; English: Wild turmeric.
Plants attaining 3 feet high. Tubers, yellow inside; root fibers not ending in small tubers in addition to larger ones. Leaves elliptic or lanceolate – oblong, up to 60 cm long, caudate- acuminate. Bracts ovate, recurved, cymbiform, comma more or less tinged with red or pink. Flowers pink.
Rhizomes smell of camphor and are used as a dye and cosmetic. (Plate 3)

Curcuma longa Koenig non L. (Zingiberaceae)
Tamil: Viraalli manjal; English: Turmeric.
Plants attaining 4-5 feet high. Tubers bright yellow within; root fibres not ending in small tubers. Leaves oblong, up to 45 cm long and 20 cm broad, caudate-accuminate, tapering at the base. Fertile bracts pale green, coma tinged with pink. Flowers pale yellow.
Rhizomes are used for food seasoning and as condiments. (Plate 4)

Curcuma zeodaria Roxb. (Zingiberaceae)
Tamil: Karppura kitchilikizhangu, Kuda manjal; English: Zedoary
Plants attaining 3 feet high. Tubers, yellow inside; root fibers ending in smaller tubers in addition to larger ones. Leaves oblong-lanceolate, accuminate, 1-2 feet long. Petioles long; fertile bracts ovate, recurved cymbiform, green tinged with red, coma crimson or purple. Flowers yellow.
Rhizomes have a pungent bitter taste and are used in perfumery and cosmetics. (Plate 5)

EXTRACTION OF DYES
Add 50 ml of ethanol to 40 g of the powdered material in a beaker. Cover the beaker with tin foil. Leave it overnight (12h) at room temperature. The next day filter the solution with muslin cloth, and the filtrate was concentrated by boiling to evaporate the solvent. The sediment formed in a pasty form is used to prepare the ‘dye extract’.

PHYSICAL ANALYSIS OF DYE
The colour, pH and optical density of the dye were recorded.

DYEING OF COTTON WITH DYE EXTRACT
The dyeing procedure of cotton fabric bits were carried out by using the three types of mordanting methods (1) Pre mordanting (2) Simultaneous mordanting (3) Post mordanting.
Preparation of the cotton fabric
The cotton fabric was resized and bleached well. It was cut into small pieces for dyeing with the dye extracts.
Preparation of the mordants
          Dyes do not interact directly with the materials they are intended to colour. Natural dyes are substantive and require a mordant to fix the fabric and prevent the colour from either fading with exposure to light or washing out. These compounds bind the natural dye to the fabric. A mordant is an element, which aids the chemical reaction that takes place between the dye and the fibers, so that the dye is absorbed. The choice of the mordants depends upon the fabric. Different types and selective mordants or their combination can be applied on the textile fabrics to obtain varying colour or shade, to increase the dye uptake and improve the colour fastness behaviour of any natural dye.  
Alum (Aluminium Potassium Sulphate)
This is the most commonly used mordant.
1.5 g alum
0.37 g washing soda (sodium carbonate)
200 ml water

Chrome (Potassium dichromate)
Chrome brightens the dye colour and is more commonly used with cotton and mohair.
0.18 g Potassium dichromate
200 ml water

Chrome alum
It gives extra bright colour. Using too much will make wool and silk brittle.
0.09 g Potassium dichromate
0.75 g Alum
0.1 g Sodium carbonate
200 ml water

Copper (Copper sulphate)
The mordant was used to bring out the green shades in dyes. It will also darken the dye colour.
0.20 g Copper sulphate
200 ml water

Sodium bicarbonate
This lightens the colour of the dye.
1g Sodium bicarbonate
200 ml water

Pre Mordanting
White wet cotton samples were placed in respective mordant solution and heated for1 hour at 50C. After cooling, it was rinsed with water and placed in dye bath. The M:L ratio 1:2 for both dyeing and mordanting. The dye bath was kept initially at 90 C for 10 minutes and then at 50 C for 40 minutes. The dyed product was rinsed with water and dried.
Simultaneous Mordanting
Cotton fabric bits were placed into 10 ml of mordants and 20 ml of dye stuff solution in a dye bath. This mixture was heated for 10 min at 90 C and 50 min at 50 C. After cooling, it was rinsed with water and dried.
Post Mordanting
Cotton fabrics were first heated in 20 ml dye bath for 5 min at 90C and 40 min at 50 C. After cooling these were put in 10 ml of the mordant solution and heated for 20 min at 60 C. Finally it was rinsed with water and dried.

QUALITY ASSURANCE TESTS OF DYED FABRIC
Natural destructive agencies are light, weather, oxygen and other atmospheric gases which can fade and destroy certain dyes. In addition to natural agencies, there are many chemicals and finishing treatments used in wet processing textiles which may influence fastness of colours to some degree. Most dyes are organic compounds and are, therefore, vulnerable in varying degree to the action of destructive agents.
Several tests for the assessments of fastness of dyes are available. A number of tests are necessary to cover all the important properties of any one dye because good fastness to one inference is not necessarily accompanied by equal fastness to other conditions. Tests may be divided into those of customer’s significance such as light, washing, rubbing, perspiration and those concerning only the producer such as fastness to cross dyeing or unshrinkable treatments, carbonization etc. (Gupta, 1992).
Fastness properties
The light, temperature and detergent fastness properties of these dyed fabrics were studied. The evaluation of the grade of fastness was done by using grade scale. Excellent (E) - there was no change in the colour fastness sample as compared with the dyed sample Good (G) - there was a little change in the colour fastness sample as compared with the dyed sample Moderate (M) - there was half fading of the colour of the fastness sample as compared with the dyed sample. Poor (P) - there was complete fading in the colour of the fastness sample as compared with the dyed sample. The identification of colours was done with shades of yellow and orange, obtained from Asian paints (Plate 6A, 6B, 6C; 7A, 7B, 7C; 8A, 8B, 8C)

Light Fastness
The light fastness of the dyed samples was assessed by exposing the dyed samples to sunlight for 12 hrs, and then the extent of fading was assessed and grading was given. The results are presented in the table.

Temperature Fastness
The temperature fastness of the dyed samples was assessed by boiling the dyed samples for 5-10 minutes and extend of fading was assessed and grading were given. The results are presented in table.

Washing Fastness
The washing fastness of all dyed samples was carried out by washing with commercial detergent cake twice and extend of fading was assessed and grading were given. The results are presented in table.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
           The dye extracts from the rhizome of Curcuma spp and their dyeing properties with cotton studies had shown some interesting results.
5.1 Taxonomical identification of Curcuma spp:
Curcuma aromatica (Plate 3)
Curcuma longa (Plate 4)
Curcuma zeodaria (Plate 5)

PLATE 3 – Curcuma aromatica Salisb.
(a-    Habit; b- Rhizome; c- Powder)

PLATE 4 - Curcuma longa Koenig non L.
(a-    Habit; b- Rhizome; c- Powder)

PLATE 5- Curcuma zeodaria Roxb.
(a-    Habit; b- Rhizome; c- Powder)

Quantum yield of the dye extracts
The colour of the dye extract and pH of the dye is reported in Table 1. The colour and fastness of dye for wool and cotton depends on the pH of the dye (Allen, 2004). The fastness for cotton increases with increases in pH. This is due to the fact that the oxygen atoms in the cellulose units of cotton are free in slightly alkaline medium and cellulose units are easily bonded to the metal cations of the mordanting agent. The Optical density and transmittance of the dye extract is given in Table 2.

Table 1: Physical properties of the natural dyes

 

S.No

Plant Source

Colour

pH

1

Curcuma aromatica - rhizome

Yellow

6.83

2

Curcuma longa - rhizome

Yellowish orange

6.92

3

Curcuma zeodaria -  rhizome

Yellow

7.05

Table 2: Optical density and transmittance of the natural dyes (at 410 nm)

S.No

Plant source

Optical density

Transmittance %

1

Curcuma aromatica

0.26

54

2

Curcuma longa

0.28

53

3

Curcuma zeodaria

0.25

57

5.4 Dyeing Properties

         The natural dyes from the three different species of turmeric, (C. aromatica, C. longa & C. zeodaria) rhizome were found to be suitable for dyeing cotton. These fabrics were dyed with metallic salts. It is obvious that the yellow extract from (C. aromatica, C. longa & C. zeodaria) rhizome contains flavonoids. This well known organic molecule was found to be mordant with metal ions to yield different colours on the fabric (Rao et al, 1995).

Effect of mordant

           The dye extract from (C. aromatica, C. longa & C. zeodaria) rhizome were applied on cotton fabric. The well established methods for dyeing – pre mordanting, post mordanting and simultaneous mordanting was carried out. The different metal salts with different colours and hues. The identification of colours was done with shades of yellow and orange, obtained from Asian paints Table (3-5).

Table 3: Colour obtained on cotton with different mordants using

Curcuma aromatica – rhizome

S.no

Mordant

Pre mordanting

Post mordanting

Simultaneous mordanting

1

Alum

Golden

Golden poppy

Maize yellow

2

Chrome

Golden poppy

Golden yellow

Buff yellow

3

Chrome alum

Lemon yellow

Amber

Maize yellow

4

Copper sulphate

Selective yellow

Golden poppy

Mustard yellow

5

Sodium bicarbonate

Golden poppy

Beige

Beige

Table 4: Colour obtained on cotton with different mordants using

Curcuma longa - rhizome

S.no

Mordant

Pre mordanting

Post mordanting

Simultaneous mordanting

1

Alum

Golden poppy

Amber

Daffodil

2

Chrome

Golden poppy

Amber

Daffodil

3

Chrome alum

Golden poppy

Amber

Daffodil

4

Copper sulphate

Amber

Golden yellow

Mustard yellow

5

Sodium bicarbonate

Golden poppy

Peach orange

Buff yellow

Table 5: Colour obtained on cotton with different mordants using

Curcuma zeodaria- rhizome

S.No

Mordant

Pre mordanting

Post mordanting

Simultaneous mordanting

1

Alum

Gamboge

Selective yellow

Golden yellow

2

Chrome

Gamboge

Selective yellow

Golden yellow

3

Chrome alum

Gamboge

Selective yellow

Golden yellow

4

Copper sulphate

Selective yellow

Selective yellow

Golden yellow

5

Sodium bicarbonate

Selective yellow

Mustard yellow

Tangerine yellow

5.5 FASTNESS PROPERTIES

The light, temperature and detergent fastness properties of these dyed fabrics were studied. The evaluation of the grade of fastness was done by using a gray scale.

5.5.1 Detergent fastness

The detergent fastness of the dyed samples was assessed by washing the dyed samples twice with commercial detergent cake (Rin Supreme - blue detergent cake, Hindustan lever Ltd., Mumbai). Table (6-8).

5.5.2 Light fastness

The light fastness of the dyed sample was assessed by exposing the dye samples to the sunlight for 12 hrs and the extent of fading was evaluated and grading was given. The results are presented in Table (6-8).

5.5.3 Temperature fastness

The temperature fastness of the dyed sample was assessed by boiling the dyed samples for 5-10 minutes and the extent of fading was assessed and grading was given. The results were presented in Table (6-8).

Curcuma aromatica Salisb.

PLATE 6 A – Pre mordant                                      Plate 6 B – Post mordant

Control – Cotton fabric                                               Control – Cotton fabric

D1 – C. aromatica dye only                                       D1 – C. aromatica dye only

D2 – C. aromatica dye only                                       D2 – C. aromatica dye only

D3 – C. aromatica dye only                                       D3 – C. aromatica dye only

D4 – C. aromatica dye only                                       D4 – C. aromatica dye only

D5 – C. aromatica dye only                                       D5 – C. aromatica dye only

AP1 – Alum dye                                                         APo1 – Alum dye

AP2 – Chrome dye                                                     APo2 – Chrome dye

AP3 – Chrome alum dye                                            APo3 – Chrome alum dye

AP4 – Copper sulphate dye                                        APo4 – Copper sulphate dye

AP5 – Sodium bicarbonate dye                                  APo5 – Sodium bicarbonate dye

APD1 – Alum detergent                                             APoD1 – Alum detergent

APD2 – Chrome detergent                                         APoD2 – Chrome detergent

APD3 – Chrome alum detergent                                APoD3 – Chrome alum detergent

APD4 – Copper sulphate detergent                            APoD4 – Copper sulphate detergent

APD5 – Sodium bicarbonate detergent                      APoD5 – Sodium bicarbonate detergent

APL1 – Alum light                                                     APoL1 – Alum light

APL2 – Chrome light                                                 APoL2 – Chrome light

APL3 – Chrome alum light                                        APoL3 – Chrome alum light

APL4 – Copper sulphate light                                                APoL4 – Copper sulphate light

APL5 – Sodium bicarbonate light                              APoL5 – Sodium bicarbonate light

APT1 – Alum temperature                                         APoT1 – Alum temperature

APT2 – Chrome temperature                                      APoT2 – Chrome temperature

APT3 – Chrome alum temperature                             APoT3 – Chrome alum temperature

APT4 – Copper sulphate temperature                        APoT4 – Copper sulphate temperature

APT5 – Sodium bicarbonate temperature                  APoT5 – Sodium bicarbonate temperatur

Plate 6C – Simultaneous mordant

Control – Cotton fabric

D1 – C. aromatica dye only                                       ASL1 – Alum light

D2 – C. aromatica dye only                                       ASL2 – Chrome light

D3 – C. aromatica dye only                                       ASL3 – Chrome alum light

D4 – C. aromatica dye only                                       ASL4 – Copper sulphate light

D5 – C. aromatica dye only                                       ASL5 – Sodium bicarbonate light

AS1 – Alum dye                                                         AST1 – Alum temperature

AS2 – Chrome dye                                                     AST2 – Chrome temperature

AS3 – Chrome alum dye                                            AST3 – Chrome alum temperature

AS4 – Copper sulphate dye                                        AST4 – Copper sulphate temperature

AS5 – Sodium bicarbonate dye                                  AST5 – Sodium bicarbonate temperature

ASD1 – Alum detergent

ASD2 – Chrome detergent

ASD3 – Chrome alum detergent

ASD4 – Copper sulphate detergent

ASD5 - Sodium bicarbonate detergent

Curcuma longa Koenig non L.

PLATE 7 A – Pre mordant                                      Plate 7 B – Post mordant

Control – Cotton fabric                                               Control – Cotton fabric

D1 – C. longa dye only                                               D1 – C. longa dye only

D2 – C. longa dye only                                               D2 – C. longa dye only

D3 – C. longa dye only                                               D3 – C. longa dye only

D4 – C. longa dye only                                               D4 – C. longa dye only

D5 – C. longa dye only                                               D5 – C. longa dye only

LP1 – Alum dye                                                         LPo1 – Alum dye

LP2 – Chrome dye                                                      LPo2 – Chrome dye

LP3 – Chrome alum dye                                             LPo3 – Chrome alum dye

LP4 – Copper sulphate dye                                        LPo4 – Copper sulphate dye

LP5 – Sodium bicarbonate dye                                  LPo5 – Sodium bicarbonate dye

LPD1 – Alum detergent                                             LPoD1 – Alum detergent

LPD2 – Chrome detergent                                         LPoD2 – Chrome detergent

LPD3 – Chrome alum detergent                                LPoD3 – Chrome alum detergent

LPD4 – Copper sulphate detergent                            LPoD4 – Copper sulphate detergent

LPD5 – Sodium bicarbonate detergent                      LPoD5 – Sodium bicarbonate detergent

LPL1 – Alum light                                                      LPoL1 – Alum light

LPL2 – Chrome light                                                  LPoL2 – Chrome light

LPL3 – Chrome alum light                                         LPoL3 – Chrome alum light

LPL4 – Copper sulphate light                                     LPoL4 – Copper sulphate light

LPL5 – Sodium bicarbonate light                              LPoL5 – Sodium bicarbonate light

LPT1 – Alum temperature                                          LPoT1 – Alum temperature

LPT2 – Chrome temperature                                      LPoT2 – Chrome temperature

LPT3 – Chrome alum temperature                             LPoT3 – Chrome alum temperature

LPT4 – Copper sulphate temperature                         LPoT4 – Copper sulphate temperature

LPT5 – Sodium bicarbonate temperature                   LPoT5 – Sodium bicarbonate temperatur

Plate 7 C – Simultaneous mordant

Control – Cotton fabric

D1 – C. longa dye only                                               LSL1 – Alum light

D2 – C. longa dye only                                               LSL2 – Chrome light

D3 – C. longa dye only                                               LSL3 – Chrome alum light

D4 – C. longa dye only                                               LSL4 – Copper sulphate light

D5 – C. longa dye only                                               LSL5 – Sodium bicarbonate light

LS1 – Alum dye                                                         LST1 – Alum temperature

LS2 – Chrome dye                                                      LST2 – Chrome temperature

LS3 – Chrome alum dye                                             LST3 – Chrome alum temperature

LS4 – Copper sulphate dye                                        LST4 – Copper sulphate temperature

LS5 – Sodium bicarbonate dye                                  LST5 – Sodium bicarbonate temperature

LSD1 – Alum detergent

LSD2 – Chrome detergent

LSD3 – Chrome alum detergent

LSD4 – Copper sulphate detergent

LSD5 - Sodium bicarbonate detergent

Curcuma zeodaria Roxb.

PLATE 8 A – Pre mordant                                      Plate 8 B – Post mordant

Control – Cotton fabric                                               Control – Cotton fabric

D1 – C. zeodaria dye only                                          D1 – C. zeodaria dye only

D2 – C. zeodaria dye only                                          D2 – C. zeodaria dye only

D3 – C. zeodaria dye only                                          D3 – C. zeodaria dye only

D4 – C. zeodaria dye only                                          D4 – C. zeodaria dye only

D5 – C. zeodaria dye only                                          D5 – C. zeodaria dye only

ZP1 – Alum dye                                                         ZPo1 – Alum dye

ZP2 – Chrome dye                                                      ZPo2 – Chrome dye

ZP3 – Chrome alum dye                                             ZPo3 – Chrome alum dye

ZP4 – Copper sulphate dye                                        ZPo4 – Copper sulphate dye

ZP5 – Sodium bicarbonate dye                                  ZPo5 – Sodium bicarbonate dye

ZPD1 – Alum detergent                                             ZPoD1 – Alum detergent

ZPD2 – Chrome detergent                                         ZPoD2 – Chrome detergent

ZPD3 – Chrome alum detergent                                ZPoD3 – Chrome alum detergent

ZPD4 – Copper sulphate detergent                            ZPoD4 – Copper sulphate detergent

ZPD5 – Sodium bicarbonate detergent                      ZPoD5 – Sodium bicarbonate detergent

ZPL1 – Alum light                                                      ZPoL1 – Alum light

ZPL2 – Chrome light                                                  ZPoL2 – Chrome light

ZPL3 – Chrome alum light                                         ZPoL3 – Chrome alum light

ZPL4 – Copper sulphate light                                     ZPoL4 – Copper sulphate light

ZPL5 – Sodium bicarbonate light                              ZPoL5 – Sodium bicarbonate light

ZPT1 – Alum temperature                                          ZPoT1 – Alum temperature

ZPT2 – Chrome temperature                                      ZPoT2 – Chrome temperature

ZPT3 – Chrome alum temperature                             ZPoT3 – Chrome alum temperature

ZPT4 – Copper sulphate temperature                         ZPoT4 – Copper sulphate temperature

ZPT5 – Sodium bicarbonate temperature                   ZPoT5 – Sodium bicarbonate temperatur

Plate 8 C – Simultaneous mordant

Control – Cotton fabric

D1 – C. zeodaria dye only                                          ZSL1 – Alum light

D2 – C. zeodaria dye only                                          ZSL2 – Chrome light

D3 – C. zeodaria dye only                                          ZSL3 – Chrome alum light

D4 – C. zeodaria dye only                                          ZSL4 – Copper sulphate light

D5 – C. zeodaria dye only                                          ZSL5 – Sodium bicarbonate light

ZS1 – Alum dye                                                         ZST1 – Alum temperature

ZS2 – Chrome dye                                                      ZST2 – Chrome temperature

ZS3 – Chrome alum dye                                             ZST3 – Chrome alum temperature

ZS4 – Copper sulphate dye                                        ZST4 – Copper sulphate temperature

ZS5 – Sodium bicarbonate dye                                  ZST5 – Sodium bicarbonate temperature

ZSD1 – Alum detergent

ZSD2 – Chrome detergent

ZSD3 – Chrome alum detergent

ZSD4 – Copper sulphate detergent

ZSD5 - Sodium bicarbonate detergent

Table 6: Fastness property of cotton dyed by pre mordanting, post mordanting and simultaneous mordanting with Curcuma aromatica – rhizome

Method of mordanting

Mordants

Detergent fastness

Light fastness

Temperature fastness

Pre mordanting

Alum

E

E

G

Chrome

G

E

E

Chrome alum

G

E

G

Copper sulphate

E

E

G

Sodium bicarbonate

G

E

E

Post mordanting

Alum

G

G

E

Chrome

G

G

G

Chrome alum

E

G

E

Copper sulphate

E

E

G

Sodium bicarbonate

P

P

P

Simultaneous

Mordanting

Alum

M

M

M

Chrome

P

P

P

Chrome alum

M

M

M

Copper sulphate

G

G

M

Sodium bicarbonate

P

P

P

 

Table 7: Fastness property of cotton dyed by pre mordanting, post mordanting and simultaneous mordanting with Curcuma longa – rhizome

Method of mordanting

Mordants

Detergent fastness

Light fastness

Temperature fastness

Pre mordanting

Alum

E

E

E

Chrome

E

E

G

Chrome alum

G

E

G

Copper sulphate

G

E

G

Sodium bicarbonate

G

G

G

Post mordanting

Alum

E

E

E

Chrome

G

E

G

Chrome alum

E

E

E

Copper sulphate

G

G

G

Sodium bicarbonate

P

P

P

Simultaneous

Mordanting

Alum

M

M

M

Chrome

P

P

P

Chrome alum

M

M

M

Copper sulphate

G

G

M

Sodium bicarbonate

M

M

M

Table 8: Fastness property of cotton dyed by pre mordanting, post mordanting and simultaneous mordanting with Curcuma zeodaria – rhizome

Method of mordanting

Mordants

Detergent fastness

Light fastness

Temperature fastness

Pre mordanting

Alum

E

E

E

Chrome

E

E

G

Chrome alum

E

E

E

Copper sulphate

G

E

E

Sodium bicarbonate

G

E

E

Post mordanting

Alum

E

E

E

Chrome

E

E

E

Chrome alum

G

E

G

Copper sulphate

E

E

E

Sodium bicarbonate

M

M

M

Simultaneous

Mordanting

Alum

M

M

M

Chrome

M

G

M

Chrome alum

M

M

M

Copper sulphate

M

M

M

Sodium bicarbonate

M

M

M

Excellent (E) - there was no change in the colour fastness sample as compared with the dyed sample Good (G) - there was a little change in the colour fastness sample as compared with the dyed sample Moderate (M) - there was half fading of the colour of the fastness sample as compared with the dyed sample. Poor (P) - there was complete fading in the colour of the fastness sample as compared with the dyed sample.

SUMMARY
The dye extracts produced excellent colours with metal salts. All the well known methods of dyeing – pre mordanting, post mordanting and simultaneous mordanting have been tried on cotton fabrics. They have yielded appreciable results.
The samples have shown good light, detergent and temperature fastness characteristics in most samples. The exact molecular structure of these dye substance could be unraveled by employing instrumental methods such as UV, IR, NMR, Gas chromatography and Mass spectroscopy. Such a study would throw light to the exact nature of the molecules. This would further facilitate the research study to utilize these substances extensively to all kinds of fabrics and yarns. A step in this direction would lead to the long march in achieving large scale preparation of the natural dyes.
Optimisation of extraction condition of dyes from (C. aromatica, C. longa & C. zeodaria) was carried out as these data may help the upcoming entrepreneurs to study the economic viability of the project on a commercial scale.

CONCLUSION
It was found from the study that rhizome of Cucurma dye can be successfully used for dyeing of silk to obtain a wide range of soft and light colours by using combination of mordants.  Natural dyes cannot be used as simple alternatives to synthetic dyes and pigments. They do, however, have the potential for application, in specified areas, to reduce the consumption of some of the more highly polluting synthetic dyes. They also have the potential to replace some of the toxic, sensitizing and carcinogenic dyes and intermediates. It has been found that natural dyes are used in antibacterial, deodorizing, UV-protection and also food products.

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